Although televised games remove
the viewing public from direct contact with events, they have neither
diminished the fervor of team identification nor dampened the enthusiasm for
athletic participation. Americans watch more sports on television than ever,
and they personally participate in more varied sporting activities and athletic
clubs. Millions of young girls and boys across the country play soccer,
baseball, tennis, and field hockey.
At the end of the 20th century,
Americans were taking part in individual sports of all kinds—jogging,
bicycling, swimming, skiing, rock climbing, playing tennis, as well as more
unusual sports such as bungee jumping, hang gliding, and wind surfing. As
Americans enjoy more leisure time, and as Hollywood and advertising emphasize
trim, well-developed bodies, sports have become a significant component of many
people's lives. Many Americans now invest significant amounts of money in
sports equipment, clothing, and gym memberships. As a result, more people are
dressing in sporty styles of clothing. Sports logos and athletic fashions have
become common aspects of people’s wardrobes, as people need to look as though
they participate in sports to be in style. Sports have even influenced the cars
Americans drive, as sport utility vehicles accommodate the rugged terrain,
elaborate equipment, and sporty lifestyles of their owners.
Probably the most significant
long-term development in 20th-century sports has been the increased
participation of minorities and women. Throughout the early 20th century,
African Americans made outstanding contributions to sports, despite being
excluded from organized white teams. The exclusion of black players from white
baseball led to the creation of a separate Negro National League in 1920. On
the world stage, track-and-field star Jessie Owens became a national hero when
he won four gold medals and set world and Olympic records at the Berlin
Olympics in 1936. The racial segregation that prevented African Americans from
playing baseball in the National League until 1947 has been replaced by the
enormous successes of African Americans in all fields of sport.
Before the 20th century women
could not play in most organized sports. Soon, however, they began to enter the
sports arena. Helen Wills Moody, a tennis champion during the 1920s, and Babe
Didrikson Zaharias, one of the 20th century’s greatest women athletes, were
examples of physical grace and agility. In 1972 Title IX of the Education
Amendments Act outlawed discrimination based on gender in education, including
school sports. Schools then spent additional funding on women's athletics,
which provided an enormous boost to women’s sports of all kinds, especially
basketball, which became very popular. Women's college basketball, part of the
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), is a popular focus of
interest. By the end of the 20th century, this enthusiasm led to the creation
of a major professional women’s basketball league. Women have become a large
part of athletics, making their mark in a wide range of sports.
Sports have become one of the
most visible expressions of the vast extension of democracy in 20th-century America. They have become more inclusive, with many Americans both personally participating
and enjoying sports as spectators. Once readily available only to the
well-to-do, sports and recreation attract many people, aided by the mass media,
the schools and colleges, the federal and state highway and park systems, and
increased leisure time.
Celebrations and Holidays
Americans celebrate an enormous
variety of festivals and holidays because they come from around the globe and
practice many religions. They also celebrate holidays specific to the United States that commemorate historical events or encourage a common national memory.
Holidays in America are often family or community events. Many Americans travel
long distances for family gatherings or take vacations during holidays. In
fact, by the end of the 20th century, many national holidays in the United States had become three-day weekends, which many people used as mini vacations.
Except for the Fourth of July and Veterans Day, most commemorative federal
holidays, including Memorial Day, Labor Day, Columbus Day, and Presidents’ Day,
are celebrated on Mondays so that Americans can enjoy a long weekend. Because
many Americans tend to create vacations out of these holiday weekends rather
than celebrate a particular event, some people believe the original
significance of many of these occasions has been eroded.
Because the United States is a secular society founded on the separation of church and state, many of
the most meaningful religiously based festivals and rituals, such as Easter,
Rosh Hashanah, and Ramadan, are not enshrined as national events, with one
major exception. Christmas, and the holiday season surrounding it, is an
enormous commercial enterprise, a fixture of the American social calendar, and
deeply embedded in the popular imagination. Not until the 19th century did
Christmas in the United States begin to take on aspects of the modern holiday
celebration, such as exchanging gifts, cooking and eating traditional foods,
and putting up often-elaborate Christmas decorations. The holiday has grown in
popularity and significance ever since. Santa Claus; brightly decorated
Christmas trees; and plenty of wreathes, holly, and ribbons help define the
season for most children. Indeed, because some religious faiths do not
celebrate Christmas, the Christmas season has expanded in recent years to
become the “holiday season,” embracing Hanukkah, the Jewish Festival of Lights,
and Kwanzaa, a celebration of African heritage. Thus, the Christmas season has
become the closest thing to a true national festival in the United States.
The expansion of Christmas has
even begun to encroach on the most indigenous of American festivals,
Thanksgiving. Celebrated on the last Thursday in November, Thanksgiving has
largely shed its original religious meaning (as a feast of giving thanks to
God) to become a celebration of the bounty of food and the warmth of family
life in America. American children usually commemorate the holiday’s origins at
school, where they re-create the original event: Pilgrims sharing a harvest
feast with Native Americans. Both the historical and the religious origins of
the event have largely given way to a secular celebration centered on the
traditional Thanksgiving meal: turkey—an indigenous American bird—accompanied
by foods common in early New England settlements, such as pumpkins, squashes,
and cranberries. Since many Americans enjoy a four-day holiday at Thanksgiving,
the occasion encourages family reunions and travel. Some Americans also
contribute time and food to the needy and the homeless during the Thanksgiving
holiday.
Another holiday that has lost
its older, religious meaning in the United States is Halloween, the eve of All
Saints’ Day. Halloween has become a celebration of witches, ghosts, goblins,
and candy that is especially attractive to children. On this day and night,
October 31, many homes are decorated and lit by jack-o'-lanterns, pumpkins that
have been hollowed out and carved. Children dress up and go trick-or-treating,
during which they receive treats from neighbors. An array of orange-colored
candies has evolved from this event, and most trick-or-treat bags usually brim
with chocolate bars and other confections.
The Fourth of July, or
Independence Day, is the premier American national celebration because it
commemorates the day the United States proclaimed its freedom from Britain with the Declaration of Independence. Very early in its development, the holiday
was an occasion for fanfare, parades, and speeches celebrating American freedom
and the uniqueness of American life. Since at least the 19th century, Americans
have commemorated their independence with fireworks and patriotic music.
Because the holiday marks the founding of the republic in 1776, flying the flag
of the United States (sometimes with the original 13 stars) is common, as are
festive barbecues, picnics, fireworks, and summer outings.
Most other national holidays
have become less significant over time and receded in importance as ways in
which Americans define themselves and their history. For example, Columbus Day
was formerly celebrated on October 12, the day explorer Christopher Columbus
first landed in the West Indies, but it is now celebrated on the second Monday
of October to allow for a three-day weekend. The holiday originally served as a
traditional reminder of the "discovery" of America in 1492, but as
Americans became more sensitive to their multicultural population, celebrating
the conquest of Native Americans became more controversial.
Holidays honoring wars have
also lost much of their original significance. Memorial Day, first called
Decoration Day and celebrated on May 30, was established to honor those who
died during the American Civil War (1861-1865), then subsequently those who
died in all American wars. Similarly, Veterans Day was first named Armistice
Day and marked the end of World War I (1914-1918). During the 1950s the name of
the holiday was changed in the United States, and its significance expanded to
honor armed forces personnel who served in any American war.
The memory of America's first president, George Washington, was once celebrated on his birthday, February
22nd. The date was changed to the third Monday in February to create a
three-day weekend, as well as to incorporate the birthday of another president,
Abraham Lincoln, who was born on February 12th. The holiday is now popularly
called Presidents’ Day and is less likely to be remembered as honoring the
first and 16th American
presidents than as a school and work holiday. Americans also memorialize Martin
Luther King, Jr., the great African American civil rights leader who was
assassinated in 1968. King’s birthday is celebrated as a national holiday in
mid-January. The celebration of King's birthday has become a sign of greater
inclusiveness in 20th-century American society.
EDUCATION
Role of Education
The United States has one of
the most extensive and diverse educational systems in the world. Educational
institutions exist at all learning levels, from nursery schools for the very
young to higher education for older youths and adults of all ages. Education in
the United States is notable for the many goals it aspires to accomplish—promoting
democracy, assimilation, nationalism, equality of opportunity, and personal
development. Because Americans have historically insisted that their schools
work toward these sometimes conflicting goals, education has often been the
focus of social conflict.
While schools are expected to
achieve many social objectives, education in America is neither centrally
administered nor supported directly by the federal government, unlike education
in other industrialized countries. In the United States, each state is
responsible for providing schooling, which is funded through local taxes and
governed by local school boards. In addition to these government-funded public
schools, the United States has many schools that are privately financed and
maintained. More than 10 percent of all elementary and secondary students in
the United States attend private schools. Religious groups, especially the
Roman Catholic Church, run many of these. Many of America's most renowned
universities and colleges are also privately endowed and run. As a result,
although American education is expected to provide equality of opportunity, it
is not easily directed toward these goals. This complex enterprise, once one of
the proudest achievements of American democracy because of its diversity and
inclusiveness, became the subject of intense debate and criticism during the
second half of the 20th century. People debated the goals of schools as well as
whether schools were educating students well enough.
History of Education in America
Until the 1830s, most American
children attended school irregularly, and most schools were either run
privately or by charities. This irregular system was replaced in the Northeast
and Midwest by publicly financed elementary schools, known as common schools.
Common schools provided rudimentary instruction in literacy and trained
students in citizenship. This democratic ideal expanded after the Civil War to
all parts of the nation. By the 1880s and 1890s, schools began to expand
attendance requirements so that more children and older children attended
school regularly. These more rigorous requirements were intended to ensure that
all students, including those whose families had immigrated from elsewhere,
were integrated into society. In addition, the schools tried to equip children
with the more complex skills required in an industrialized urban society.
Education became increasingly
important during the 20th century, as America’s sophisticated industrial
society demanded a more literate and skilled workforce. In addition, school
degrees provided a sought-after means to obtain better-paying and higher-status
jobs. Schools were the one American institution that could provide the literate
skills and work habits necessary for Americans of all backgrounds to compete in
industries. As a result, education expanded rapidly. In the first decades of
the 20th century, mandatory education laws required children to complete grade
school. By the end of the 20th century, many states required children to attend
school until they were at least 16. In 1960, 45 percent of high school
graduates enrolled in college; by 1996 that enrollment rate had risen to 65
percent. By the late 20th century, an advanced education was necessary for
success in the globally competitive and technologically advanced modern
economy. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, workers with a bachelor’s degree
in 1997 earned an average of $40,000 annually, while those with a high school
degree earned about $23,000. Those who did not complete high school earned
about $16,000.
In the United States, higher education is widely
available and obtainable through thousands of private, religious, and state-run
institutions, which offer advanced professional, scientific, and other training
programs that enable students to become proficient in diverse subjects.
Colleges vary in cost and level of prestige. Many of the oldest and most famous
colleges on the East Coast are expensive and set extremely high admissions
standards. Large state universities are less difficult to enter, and their fees
are substantially lower. Other types of institutions include state universities
that provide engineering, teaching, and agriculture degrees; private
universities and small privately endowed colleges; religious colleges and
universities; and community and junior colleges that offer part-time and
two-year degree programs. This complex and diverse range of schools has made
American higher education the envy of other countries and one of the nation’s
greatest assets in creating and maintaining a technologically advanced society.
When more people began to
attend college, there were a number of repercussions. Going to college delayed
maturity and independence for many Americans, extending many of the stresses of
adolescence into a person’s 20s and postponing the rites of adulthood, such as
marriage and childbearing. As society paid more attention to education, it also
devoted a greater proportion of its resources to it. Local communities were
required to spend more money on schools and teachers, while colleges and
universities were driven to expand their facilities and course offerings to
accommodate an ever-growing student body. Parents were also expected to support
their children longer and to forgo their children's contribution to the
household.
Funding
Education is an enormous
investment that requires contributions from many sources. American higher
education is especially expensive, with its heavy investment in laboratory
space and research equipment. It receives funding from private individuals,
foundations, and corporations. Many private universities have large endowments,
or funds, that sustain the institutions beyond what students pay in tuition and
fees. Many, such as Harvard University in Massachusetts and Stanford University in California, raise large sums of money through fund drives. Even many
state-funded universities seek funds from private sources to augment their
budgets. Most major state universities, such as those in Michigan and California, now rely on a mixture of state and private resources.
Before World War II, the
federal government generally played a minor role in financing education, with
the exception of the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890. These acts granted the
states public lands that could be sold for the purpose of establishing and
maintaining institutions of higher education. Many so-called land-grant state
universities were founded during the 19th century as a result of this funding.
Today, land-grant colleges include some of the nation’s premier state
universities. The government also provided some funding for basic research at
universities.
The American experience in
World War II (especially the success of the Manhattan Project, which created
the atomic bomb) made clear that scientific and technical advances, as well as
human resources, were essential to national security. As a result, the federal
government became increasingly involved in education at all levels and
substantially expanded funding for universities. The federal government began
to provide substantial amounts of money for university research programs
through agencies such as the National Science Foundation, and later through the
National Institutes of Health and the departments of Energy and Defense. At the
same time, the government began to focus on providing equal educational
opportunities for all Americans. Beginning with the GI Bill, which financed
educational programs for veterans, and later in the form of fellowships and
direct student loans in the 1960s, more and more Americans were able to attend
colleges and universities.
During the 1960s the federal
government also began to play more of a role in education at lower levels. The
Great Society programs of President Lyndon Johnson developed many new
educational initiatives to assist poor children and to compensate for
disadvantage. Federal money was funneled through educational institutions to
establish programs such as Head Start, which provides early childhood education
to disadvantaged children. Some Americans, however, resisted the federal
government’s increased presence in education, which they believed contradicted
the long tradition of state-sponsored public schooling.
By the 1980s many public
schools were receiving federal subsidies for textbooks, transportation,
breakfast and lunch programs, and services for students with disabilities. This
funding enriched schools across the country, especially inner-city schools, and
affected the lives of millions of schoolchildren. Although federal funding
increased, as did federal supervision, to guarantee an equitable distribution
of funds, the government did not exercise direct control over the academic
programs schools offered or over decisions about academic issues. During the
1990s, the administration of President Bill Clinton urged the federal
government to move further in exercising leadership by establishing academic
standards for public schools across the country and to evaluate schools through
testing.
Concerns in Elementary
Education
The United States has
historically contended with the challenges that come with being a nation of
immigrants. Schools are often responsible for modifying educational offerings
to accommodate immigrants. Early schools reflected many differences among
students and their families but were also a mechanism by which to overcome these
differences and to forge a sense of American commonality. Common schools, or
publicly financed elementary schools, were first introduced in the mid-19th
century in the hopes of creating a common bond among a diverse citizenship. By
the early 20th century, massive immigration from Europe caused schools to
restructure and expand their programs to more effectively incorporate immigrant
children into society. High schools began to include technical, business, and
vocational curricula to accommodate the various goals of its more diverse
population. The United States continues to be concerned about how to
incorporate immigrant groups.
The language in which students
are taught is one of the most significant issues for schools. Many Americans
have become concerned about how best to educate students who are new to the
English language and to American culture. As children of all ages and from
dozens of language backgrounds seek an education, most schools have adopted
some variety of bilingual instruction. Students are taught in their native
language until their knowledge of English improves, which is often accomplished
through an English as a Second Language (ESL) program. Some people have
criticized these bilingual programs for not encouraging students to learn English
more quickly, or at all. Some Americans fear that English will no longer
provide a uniform basis for American identity; others worry that immigrant
children will have a hard time finding employment if they do not become fluent
in English. In response to these criticisms, voters in California, the state
that has seen the largest influx of recent immigrants, passed a law in 1998
requiring that all children attending public schools be taught in English and
prohibiting more than one year of bilingual instruction.