Теории лидерства
Higgins, 1990), laboratory experimentation (Howell & Frost, 1989;
Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1996), questionnaires (Lowe, Kroeck & Sivasubramaniam,
1995), and quantified archival data (House, Spangler & Woycke, 1991). In
all of these tests, the leader behavior measured consists of articulating
an organizational vision and behaving in ways that reinforce the values
inherent in the vision, thus qualifying as indirect evidence relevant to
the effects of value based leadership. Space limitations prevent a
detailed review of the evidence. However, Bass and Avolio (1993), House
and Shamir (1993), Lowe et al,. (1995), and Yukl (1994), present overviews
of these studies. With surprising consistency these empirical studies have
demonstrated consistently that value based leader behavior predicts unusual
levels of leader effectiveness directed toward enhancing organizational
performance.
Support for the effects of value based leadership is illustrated by a
recent meta-analysis of the charisma subscale of the Bass and Avolio (1989)
Multifacet Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). The MLQ charisma subscale
describes relationships between subordinates and superiors. Superiors who
receive high scores on this scale are described by subordinates as having
an exciting vision of the future for the organization they lead, and being
exceptionally motivational, trustworthy, and deserving of respect.
Support for the theoretical main effects of value based leader
behavior has been demonstrated at several levels of analysis including
dyads, small informal groups, major departments of complex organizations,
overall performance of educational and profit making organizations, and
nation states. The evidence is derived from a wide variety of samples
including military officers, educational administrators, middle managers,
subjects in laboratory experiments and management simulations, US
presidents and chief executive officers of Fortune 500 firms (Bass &
Avolio, 1993; House & Shamir, 1993; Waldman, Ramirez & House, 1996).
The evidence shows that the effects of value based leader behavior are
rather widely generalizable in the United States and that they may well
generalize across cultures. For instance, studies based on the charisma
scale of the MLQ have demonstrated similar findings in India (Periera,
1987), Singapore (Koh, Terborg & Steers, 1991), The Netherlands (Koene,
Pennings & Schreuder, 1991), China, Germany, and Japan (Bass, 1997).
In summary, the studies based on various operationalizations of value
based leadership clearly show that this genre of leadership results in a
high level of follower motivation and commitment and well-above-average
organizational performance, especially under conditions of crises or
uncertainty (Pillai & Meindl, 1991; House, Spangler, & Woycke, 1995;
Waldman, Ramirez & House, 1996; Waldman, Atwater & House, 1996).
NEWLY INTEGRATED THEORIES
The value based theory of leadership integrates the precursor theories
discussed above with a number of assertions advanced in several
psychological theories of motivation and behavior. Following is a brief
review of the psychological theories that are integrated into the Value
Based Leadership Theory.
McClelland's Theories of Non-conscious Motivation
According to this theory, the motivational aspects of human beings can
be understood in terms of four non-conscious motives in various
combinations (McClelland, 1985). These motives are the achievement, power,
affiliation, and social responsibility motives. McClelland has developed a
theory of entrepreneural effectiveness based on the role of achievement
motivation, and a more general theory of leader effectiveness consisting of
theoretical assertions concerning the optimum combination of the above four
motives for effective leadership. This theory is entitled the Leader
Motive Profile Theory (LMP). In the following sections we discuss the four
motives discussed by McClelland and the LMP theory.
Achievement Motivation
Achievement motivation is defined as a non-conscious concern for
achieving excellence in accomplishments through one's individual efforts
(McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1958). Achievement motivated
individuals set challenging goals for themselves, assume personal
responsibility for goal accomplishment, are highly persistent in the
pursuit of goals, take calculated risks to achieve goals and actively
collect and use information for feedback purposes. Achievement motivation
is theoretically predicted to contribute to effective entrepreneurship
(McClelland, 1985) and effective leadership of small task oriented groups
(House et al., 1991). Litwin and Stringer (1968) demonstrated
experimentally that small groups led by managers who enacted achievement
oriented and arousing behaviors were more effective than groups with
managers who did not.
In management positions at higher levels in organizations, and
particularly in organizational settings where technical requirements are
few and impact on others is of fundamental importance, managerial
effectiveness depends on the extent to which managers delegate effectively
and motivate and co-ordinate others. Theoretically, high achievement
motivated managers are strongly inclined to be personally involved in
performing the work of their organization and are reluctant to delegate
authority and responsibility. Therefore, high achievement motivation is
expected to predict poor performance of high-level executives in large
organizations. House et al. (1991) found that achievement motivation of
U.S. presidents was significantly inversely related to archival measures of
U.S. presidential effectiveness.
Affiliative Motivation
Affiliative motivation is defined as a non-conscious concern for
establishing, maintaining, and restoring close personal relationships with
others. Individuals with high affiliative motivation tend to be non-
assertive, submissive, and dependent on others (McClelland, 1985).
Theoretically, highly affiliative motivated managers are reluctant to
monitor the behavior of subordinates, to convey negative feedback to
subordinates even when required, or to discipline subordinates for ethical
transgressions or violations of organizational policies. Highly
affiliative motivated managers are also theoretically expected to manage on
the basis of personal relationships with subordinates and therefore show
favoritism toward some. House et al. (1991) found that the affiliative
motive was significantly negatively correlated with U.S. presidential
charismatic leadership and archival measures of U.S. presidential
effectiveness.
Power Motivation
Power motivation is defined as a non-conscious concern for acquiring
status and having an impact on others. Individuals with high power
motivation tend to enjoy asserting social influence, being persuasive,
drawing attention to themselves, and having an impact on their immediate
environment including the people with whom they interact. Theoretically, if
enacted in a socially constructive manner, high power motivation should
result in effective managerial performance in high level positions
(McClelland, 1975; 1985). However, unless constrained by a responsibility
disposition, power motivated managers will exercise power in an impetuously
aggressive manner for self aggrandizing purposes to the detriment of their
subordinates and organizations.
High power motivation induces highly competitive behavior. Therefore,
when unconstrained by moral inhibition, power motivation is theoretically
predictive of leader effectiveness when the role demands of leaders require
strong individual competitiveness, aggressiveness, manipulative exploitive
behavior, or the exercise of substantial political influence. The power
motive was found by House et al. (1991) to significantly predict
presidential charismatic behavior and archival measures of presidential
effectiveness.
Responsibility Disposition
According to McClelland, individuals who have a high concern for the
moral exercise of power will use power in an altruistic and collectively-
oriented manner. Indicators of high concern for responsibility are
expressions of concern about meeting moral standards and obligations to
others, concern for others, concern about consequences of one’s own action,
and critical self judgment.
Winter and Barenbaum (1985) developed and validated a measure of
concern for moral responsibility, which they label the responsibility
disposition1. The measure is based on quantitative content analysis of
narrative text material. Winter (1991) demonstrated that the
responsibility disposition, in combination with high power and low
affiliative motivation, was predictive of managerial success over a sixteen-
year interval.
The responsibility motive should be predictive of leader integrity and
leaders' concern for the consequences of their own actions on others.
Leaders with high responsibility disposition are expected to stress the
importance of keeping one's word, honesty, fairness, and socially
responsible behavior. Thus, we expect the responsibility disposition to be
associated with value based leader behavior, supportive leader behavior,
fairness, follower trust and respect for the leader and commitment to the
leader’s vision, and consequently organizational effectiveness.
Leader Motive Profile Theory
McClelland (1975) argued that the following combination of non-
conscious motives are generic to, and predictive of, leader effectiveness:
high power motivation, moderate achievement motivation, high concern for
the moral exercise of power, and power motivation greater than affiliative
motivation. This combination of motives is referred to by McClelland
(1975) as the Leader Motive Profile (LMP).
According to LMP theory, the power motive is necessary for leaders to
be effective because it induces them to engage in social influence
behavior, and such behavior is required for effective leadership. Further,
when the power motive is higher than the affiliative motive, individuals do
not engage in the dysfunctional behaviors usually associated with high
affiliation motivation - favoritism, submissiveness, and reluctance to
monitor and discipline subordinates. Finally, when high power motivation
is coupled with a high concern for moral responsibility, individuals are
predicted to engage in the exercise of power in an effective and socially
desirable manner. Earlier research, also reviewed by McClelland (1985),
suggests that the achievement motive is a better predictor of leader
effectiveness and success in entrepreneurial organizations than LMP.
Theoretically the leader motive profile is predictive of managerial
effectiveness under conditions where leaders need to exercise social
influence in the process of making decisions and motivating others to
accept and implement decisions. In formal organizations these conditions
are found at higher levels and in non-technical functions. By contrast, in
smaller technologically based organizations, group leaders can rely on
direct contact with subordinates (rather than delegation through multiple
organizational levels), and technological knowledge to make decisions.
Thus LMP theory is limited to the boundary conditions of moderate to large
non-technologically oriented organizations (McClelland, 1975; Winter,
1978; 1991), and to managers who are separated from the work of the
organization by at least one organizational level.
Several studies have demonstrated support for the LMP theory. Winter
(1978) found that LMP was predictive of the career success of entry level
managers in non-technical positions in the US Navy over an eight-year
interval. Both McClelland and Boyatzis (1982), and Winter (1991), in
separate analyses of the same data but with different operationalizations
of LMP, found similar results at AT&T over a sixteen-year interval.
McClelland and Burnham (1976) found high-LMP managers had more supportive
and rewarding organizational climates, and higher performing sales groups
than low-LMP managers did in a large sales organization. House, et al.
(1991) found that the motive components of the LMP predicted US
presidential charisma and presidential performance effectiveness.
Since high LMP leaders have greater power than affiliative motivation
it is expected that they will be assertive and at least moderately
directive. Further, since they have high responsibility motivation it is
expected that thay will have highly internalized idological values - values
concerning what is morally right and wrong - and that they will thus stress
ideological value orientation, integrity, and fairness, as explained above,
both verbally and through personal example.
The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership
The essence of path-goal theory is that leader behaviors will be
effective when such behaviors complement formal organizational practices
and the informal social system by providing direction, clarification,
support and motivational incentives to subordinates, which are not
otherwise provided (House, 1971; House & Mitchell, 1974; House, 1996).
According to the 1996 version of path-goal theory, leaders who give
approval and recognition of subordinates, contingent on performance and in
a fair manner, will clarify expectancies of subordinates concerning work
goals and rewards, and will effectively motivate subordinates. This theory
also predicts that leader consideration toward subordinates provides the
psychological support subordinates require, especially in times of stress
and frustration.
Path-goal theory suggests that either participative or directive
leader behavior can provide psychological structure and direction and
therefore clarify subordinates' role demands. Theoretically, directive
leader behavior will be dysfunctional and participative leader behavior
will be functional when subordinates are highly involved in their work,
perceive themselves as having a high level of task related knowledge,
and/or prefer a high level of autonomy. Meta-analyses of 135 relationships
tested in prior studies provide support for these assertions (Wofford &
Liska, 1993).
Dissonance Theory and Competing Values
According to cognitive dissonance theory, individuals experience
anxiety-inducing cognitive dissonance when their self-evaluative
cognitions, feelings and behavior are in conflict with each other
(Festinger, 1980). Under such conditions, individuals are strongly
motivated to reduce the dissonance by changing one or more of the dissonant
components--either their behavior, their cognitions, or their feelings. It
follows from dissonance theory that when leaders appeal to ideological
values of followers and also administer extrinsic material rewards strictly
contingent on follower performance, they will induce cognitive dissonance
in followers. Offering strong extrinsic incentives for doing what is
claimed to be morally correct will theoretically induce dissonance, and is
likely to undermine the effects of leaders' appeals to ideological values.
From dissonance theory, we would expect that with the exception of social
rewards such as approval and recognition, contingent reward behavior on the
part of leaders will undermine the effects of value based leader behavior.
Equity Theory
Equity theory asserts that when individuals perceive the ratio of
their contributions to their rewards (intrinsic or extrinsic) to be equal
to the ratio of contributions to rewards of others, they will believe that
they are treated fairly (Adams, 1963). We expect that under conditions of
perceived unfairness followers will feel resentment, be demotivated, will
not support and may even resist attempts by leaders to influence them.
Situational Strength
Mischel (1973) has argued that the psychological strength of
situations influences the degree to which individual dispositions such as
motives or personality traits are expressed behaviorally. Strong
situations are situations in which there are strong behavioral norms,
strong incentives for specific types of behaviors, and clear expectations
concerning what behaviors are rewarded. According to this argument, in
strong situations, motivational or personality tendencies are constrained
and there will be little behavioral expression of individual dispositions.
Thus, in organizations that are highly formalized and governed by well-
established role expectations, norms, rules, policies and procedures, there
is less opportunity for organizational members to behaviorally express
their dispositional tendencies.
Theoretically, in strong psychological situations, leader motives have
less influence on leader behavior, and leader behavior has less influence
on subordinates and on organizational outcomes than in weak psychological
situations. Studies by Monson, Healy and Chernick (1982), Lee, Ashford,
and Bobko (1990), and Barrick and Mount (1993) have demonstrated support
for Mischel's situational strength argument.
THE VALUE BASED LEADERSHIP THEORY
This theory consists of six axioms and twenty-seven propositions that
relate leader behavior, leader motives, and situational variables to leader
effectiveness.
The Parsimonious Meta–Proposition of Value Based Leadership
Value based leadership theory is based on the meta–proposition that
non-conscious motives and motivation based on strongly internalized values
is stronger, more pervasive, and more enduring than motivation based on
instrumental calculations of anticipated rewards or motivation based on
threat and avoidance of punishment. The axioms and propositions that
follow are derived from and can all be explained in terms of this
parsimonious meta-proposition.
The Value Based Leader Behavior Syndrome
Behaviors that characterize value based leadership include a)
articulation of a challenging vision of a better future to which followers
are claimed to have a moral right; b) unusual leader determination,
persistence, and self-sacrifice in the interest of the vision and the
values inherent in the vision; c) communication of high performance
expectations of followers and confidence in their ability to contribute to
the collective; d) display of self-confidence, confidence in followers, and
confidence in the attainment of the vision; e) display of integrity; f)
Страницы: 1, 2, 3
|