History of the USA
Era: Wilson's aim was the extension of democracy and the creation of a just
world order. In January 1918 he issued his FOURTEEN POINTS as a proposed
basis for peace: freedom of the seas and removal of all barriers to trade;
an end to secret diplomacy; general disarmament; self-government for the
submerged nationalities in the German and Austro- Hungarian empires; and a
league of nations. The addition of more than a million American troops to
the Allied armies turned the balance against the Germans in 1918, and an
armistice on November 11 ended the war. At the PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE,
however, Wilson failed in much of his program, for the other Allies were
not interested in a "peace without victory." The British would not agree to
freedom of the seas; tariffs did not tumble; self-determination was often
violated; key negotiations were kept secret; but in the end Wilson obtained
his greatest objective, establishment of the League of Nations to provide
collective security against future aggression. Many at home, however,
preferred to return to America's traditional isolation from world affairs.
When Wilson tried imperiously to force the Senate to accept the entire
treaty, he failed. The United States never became a member of the League of
Nations.
THE UNITED STATES TURNS INWARD: THE 1920S AND 1930S
After its participation in the conflagration then known as the Great War,
the American nation was ready to turn inward and concentrate on domestic
affairs (a "return to normalcy," as 1920 presidential candidate Warren
Harding called it). Private concerns preoccupied most Americans during the
1920s until the Great Depression of the next decade, when increasing
numbers turned, in their collective misfortune, to government for solutions
to economic problems that challenged the very basis of U.S. capitalistic
society.
The 1920s: Decade of Optimism
By the 1920s innovative forces thrusting into American life were creating a
new way of living. The automobile and the hard- surfaced road produced
mobility and a blurring of the traditional rural-urban split. The radio and
motion pictures inaugurated a national culture, one built on new, urban
values. The 19TH AMENDMENT (1920) gave women the vote in national politics
and symbolized their persistence in efforts to break out of old patterns of
domesticity. The war had accelerated their entrance into business,
industry, and the professions and their adoption of practices, such as
drinking and smoking, traditionally considered masculine. So, too, young
people turned to new leaders and values and sought unorthodox dress,
recreations, and morals.
Traditional WASP (white, Anglo-Saxon Protestant) America fought the new
ways. The adoption of PROHIBITION in 1919 (with ratification of the 18TH
AMENDMENT) had been a victory of Yankee moral values over those of
immigrants, but now many of the great cities practically ignored the
measure. The Russian Revolution of 1917 sent a Red Scare shivering through
the country in 1919-20; suspicion centered on labor unions as alleged
instruments of Moscow. The KU KLUX KLAN, stronger in the northern
Republican countryside than in the South, attacked the so-called New Negro,
who returned from the fighting in France with a new sense of personal
dignity (the HARLEM RENAISSANCE expressed this spirit through the arts),
and the millions of Roman Catholics and Jews who had been flooding into the
country since the 1890s. The Immigration Law of 1924 established a quota
system that discriminated against all groups except northern and western
Europeans. In 1925 the spectacular SCOPES TRIAL in Dayton, Tenn., convicted
a high school science teacher of presenting Darwinian theories of
evolution, which fundamentalist Protestants bitterly opposed.
New ideas, however, continued to inundate the country, and optimism
remained high. The U.S. population delighted in the "miracles" that new
inventions had brought them--electric lights, airplanes, new communication
systems. The solo flight to Paris of Charles LINDBERGH in 1927 seemed to
capture the spirit of the age. The business community was praised for its
values and productivity. Henry Ford (see FORD family) and his system of
cheap mass production of automobiles for people of modest incomes was
regarded as symbolic of the new era.
Three Republican presidents occupied the White House during the 1920s.
Warren HARDING, a conservative, was swept into office by a landslide
victory in 1920. He proved an inept president, and his administration was
racked by scandals, including that of TEAPOT DOME. Calvin COOLIDGE, who
succeeded to the office on Harding's death (1923), worshiped business as
much as he detested government. Herbert HOOVER, an engineer, brought to the
presidency (1929-33) a deep faith in the essential soundness of capitalism,
which to him represented the fullest expression of individualism. In 1920
the U.S. census showed, for the first time, that a majority of Americans
lived in cities of 2,500 people or more.
The 1930s: Decade of Depression
The stock market crash of October 1929 initiated a long economic decline
that accelerated into a world catastrophe, the DEPRESSION OF THE 1930s. By
1933, 14 million Americans were unemployed, industrial production was down
to one-third of its 1929 level, and national income had dropped by more
than half. In the presence of deep national despair, Democratic challenger
Franklin D. ROOSEVELT easily defeated Hoover in the 1932 presidential
election. After his inauguration, the NEW DEAL exploded in a whirlwind of
legislation.
A new era commenced in American history, one in which a social democratic
order similar to that of Western European countries appeared. The federal
government under Roosevelt (and the presidency itself) experienced a vast
expansion in its authority, especially over the economy. Roosevelt had a
strong sense of community; he distrusted unchecked individualism and
sympathized with suffering people. He nourished, however, no brooding
rancor against the U.S. system. He sought to save capitalism, not supplant
it.
Recovery was Roosevelt's first task. In the First New Deal (1933-35) he
attempted to muster a spirit of emergency and rally all interests behind a
common effort in which something was provided for everyone. Excessive
competition and production were blamed for the collapse. Therefore,
business proprietors and farmers were allowed to cooperate in establishing
prices that would provide them with a profitable return and induce an
upward turn (under the NATIONAL RECOVERY ADMINISTRATION and the
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ADMINISTRATION). By 1935, however, 10 million were
still unemployed, the economy seemed lodged at a new plateau, and the U.S.
Supreme Court was ruling such agencies unconstitutional.
The Second New Deal (1935-38) was more antibusiness and proconsumer.
Roosevelt turned to vastly increased relief spending (under the WORKS
PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION) to pump up consumer buying power. In 1933 he had
decided to take the nation off the gold standard, except in international
trade. Setting the price at which the government would buy gold at $35 an
ounce, he induced so massive a flow of gold into the country that its basic
stock of precious metal increased by one-third by 1940 (expanding by much
more the currency available in the economy). This monetary policy and the
spending to aid the unemployed succeeded in moving the economy toward
recovery before 1940, when the impact of war-induced buying from Europe
accelerated such movement.
The impact of the New Deal was perhaps strongest and most lasting in its
basic reform measures, which profoundly altered the American system. Farm
prices were supported and farm plantings centrally planned; the money
supply became a federal, not private, responsibility under a strengthened
Federal Reserve Board; and stock exchanges were put under regulation of the
SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION. The FEDERAL DEPOSIT INSURANCE
CORPORATION insured bank deposits, and banking practices were closely
supervised under the Banking Act of 1933; the NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS ACT
made relations between employers and employees a matter of public concern
and control; and under the direction of agencies such as the TENNESSEE
VALLEY AUTHORITY government facilities supplied electrical power to entire
regions, providing a standard for private utilities. Private utility
monopolies were broken apart and placed under public regulation; antitrust
efforts were reenergized; and economic recessions, then and afterward, were
monitored by the federal government, which was ready to increase public
spending to provide employment and ward off the onset of another
depression.
For the majority of the population, New Deal legislation defined minimum
standards of living: the Fair Labor Standards Act set MINIMUM WAGE and
maximum hour limitations and included a prohibition on child labor in
interstate commerce; the Social Security Act (see SOCIAL SECURITY) made
provisions for old-age and disability pensions, unemployment insurance,
monthly payments to mothers living alone with dependent children, and
direct assistance to the blind and crippled.
In addition, the New Deal helped make it possible for organized unions to
gain higher wages; in 1938 the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)
was formed; members were organized by industry rather than by craft. The
New Deal also provided a sense of confidence that in a time of disaster the
federal government would take positive action.
Meanwhile, totalitarian movements abroad were inducing world crisis.
Congress, mirroring public opinion, had grown disenchanted with the U.S.
entry into World War I. This spirit of isolationism led to the passage
(1935-37) of a series of neutrality acts. They required an arms embargo
that would deny the sale of munitions to belligerents during a time of
international war and prohibited loans to belligerents and the travel of
Americans on ships owned by belligerents. Congress thus hoped to prevent
involvements like those of 1914-17.
A WORLD POWER
The spirit of isolationism eroded steadily as Americans watched the
aggressive moves of Adolf Hitler and his allies. President Roosevelt and
the American people finally concluded that the United States could not
survive as a nation, nor could Western civilization endure, if Hitler and
fascism gained dominance over Europe. During the world war that followed,
the American nation rose to the status of a major world power, a position
that was not abandoned but confirmed in the cold-war years of the late
1940s and the 1950s.
Total War: 1941-45
In September 1940, Congress established the first peacetime draft in
American history, and 6 months later it authorized Roosevelt to transfer
munitions to Great Britain, now standing practically alone against Hitler,
by a procedure called LEND- LEASE. On Dec. 7, 1941, the Japanese reacted to
stiffening American diplomacy against its expansion into Southeast Asia by
attacking the U.S. fleet at PEARL HARBOR in the Hawaiian Islands. This
thrust was aimed at immobilizing American power long enough to allow the
establishment of a wide imperial Japanese perimeter including all of the
western Pacific and China, henceforth to be defended against all comers.
Japan, however, in one stroke had succeeded in scuttling American
isolationist sentiment, forcing the United States into World War II, and
unifying the American people as never before in total war.
The first American military decision was to concentrate on defeating Hitler
while fighting a holding action in the Pacific. The next was to form an
alliance with Great Britain so close that even military commands were
jointly staffed. The year 1942 was devoted to halting, after many defeats,
the outward spread of Japanese power and to keeping Hitler's forces from
overwhelming America's British and Soviet allies. Large shipments of
munitions went to both allies. In November an American force invaded North
Africa; it joined the British in defeating the German armies in that region
by May 1943.
In 2 months the Allies were fighting the Germans in Sicily and Italy; at
the same time U.S. forces in the Pacific were pushing in toward the
Japanese home islands by means of an island- hopping offensive. On the long
Russian front, German armies were being defeated and pushed back toward
their borders. In June 1944 a huge Allied force landed on the French coast,
an invasion preceded by 2 years of intense day-and-night bombing of Germany
by British and American aircraft. By August 1944, Paris was recaptured.
Hitler's empire was crumbling; clouds of bombers were raining destruction
on German cities; and on Apr. 30, 1945, with the Soviet troops just a few
miles from Berlin, Hitler committed suicide. Peace in Europe followed
shortly.
The Pacific war continued, the Japanese home islands being rendered
practically defenseless by July 1945. American aerial attacks burned out
city after city. In April, Harry S. TRUMAN had succeeded to the presidency
on Roosevelt's death. Now, advised that the alternative would be an
invasion in which multitudes would perish, including many thousands of
young Americans, he authorized use of the recently tested atomic bomb. On
Aug. 6, the city of Hiroshima was obliterated; on Aug. 9, the same fate
came to Nagasaki. Within a week, a cease-fire (which later research
suggests was reachable without atomic attack) was achieved.
The political shape of the postwar world was set at the YALTA CONFERENCE
(February 1945) between Roosevelt, Joseph Stalin, and Winston Churchill.
Soviet occupation of Eastern European countries overrun by the Red Army was
accepted, in return for a pledge to allow democratic governments to rise
within them. Soviet and Allied occupation zones in Germany were
established, with Berlin, deep in the Soviet zone, to be jointly
administered. In return for Soviet assistance in the invasion of Japan
(which was eventually not needed), it was agreed that certain possessions
in the Far East and rights in Manchuria, lost to the Japanese long before,
would be restored to the USSR. Soon it was clear that the kind of
democratic government envisioned by the Americans was not going to be
allowed in the East European countries under Soviet control. Nor, as the
Soviets pointed out, was the United States ready to admit the Soviets to
any role in the occupation and government of Japan, whose internal
constitution and economy were rearranged to fit American desires under Gen.
Douglas MACARTHUR.
Cold-War Years
The breach widened steadily. Charges and countercharges were directed back
and forth, the Soviets and Americans interpreting each other's actions in
the worst possible light. Americans became convinced that the Soviets were
thrusting out in every direction, seeking to communize not only the Soviet-
occupied countries, but also Turkey, Greece, and Western Europe. In
February 1946, Stalin declared in Moscow that there could never be a
lasting peace with capitalism. Shortly thereafter, Churchill warned of the
"iron curtain" that had descended across the middle of Europe. The COLD WAR
had begun.
In March 1947, Truman asked Congress for funds to shore up Turkey and
Greece, both under Soviet pressure, and announced the Truman Doctrine: that
"it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are
resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside
pressures." Then the MARSHALL PLAN (named for George C. MARSHALL, U.S.
chief of staff during the war and at this time secretary of state),
approved by Congress in April 1948, sent $12 billion to the devastated
countries of Europe to help them rebuild and fend off the despair on which
communism was believed to feed.
True to its Democratic tradition, the Truman administration stressed
multilateral diplomacy; that is, the building of an international order
based on joint decision making. Nationalism, it was believed, must be
tamed. The United Nations received strong American support. Meanwhile, the
United States continued the drive toward a lowering of world tariffs (begun
in the 1930s). During the war, all recipients of Lend-Lease had been
required to commit themselves to lowered tariffs. These commitments were
internationally formalized in 1947 in the GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND
TRADE, when 23 nations participated in an extensive mutual lowering of
trade barriers. In 1948, at American initiative, the ORGANIZATION OF
AMERICAN STATES was established to provide a regional multilateral
consultative body in the Western Hemisphere. Within Europe, the Marshall
Plan required the formation of Europe-wide organizations, leading
eventually to the Common Market.
Toward the USSR, the basic American policy was that known as containment:
building "situations of strength" around its vast perimeter to prevent the
outward spread of communism. Angered Americans blamed the USSR for world
disorder and came to regard the peace of the entire world as a U.S.
responsibility. After their immense war effort, many Americans believed
that the United States could accomplish whatever it desired to do. Also,
having defeated one form of tyranny, fascism, and now being engaged in
resisting another, Stalinist communism, the American people assumed with
few questions that, since their cause was just, whatever they did in its
name was right. Critics of national policy were harshly condemned.
A series of East-West crises, most dramatically the Berlin Blockade of 1948-
49, led to the creation (April 1949) of the NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY
ORGANIZATION. The NATO alliance sought to link the United States militarily
to Western Europe (including Greece and Turkey) by making an attack against
one member an attack against all. As Europe recovered its prosperity, the
focus of East-West confrontation shifted to Asia, where the British,
French, and Dutch empires were collapsing and the Communist revolution in
China was moving toward its victory (October 1949). In June 1950 the North
Korean army invaded South Korea. The United Nations Security Council (which
the Soviets were then boycotting) called on UN members jointly to repel
this attack. Shortly afterward, a multinational force under Gen. Douglas
MacArthur was battling to turn back North Korean forces in the KOREAN WAR.
As the UN army swept northward to the Manchurian border, Chinese forces
flooded southward to resist them, and a long, bloody seesaw war ensued. An
armistice was not signed until July 1953, following 150,000 American
casualties and millions of deaths among the Koreans and Chinese.
Domestic Developments during the Truman Years
In 1945, President Truman called on Congress to launch another program of
domestic reform, but the nation was indifferent. It was riding a wave of
affluence such as it had never dreamed of in the past. Tens of millions of
people found themselves moving upward into a middle-class way of life. The
cold war, and the pervasive fear of an atomic war, induced a trend toward
national unity and a downplaying of social criticism. The Atomic Energy Act
of 1946 nationalized nuclear power, putting it under civilian control, but
no other bold departures were made. What fascinated Americans was the so-
called baby boom--a huge increase in the birthrate (the population was at
150 million by 1950 and 179 million by 1960)--and the need to house new
families and teach their children.
In the presence of rapidly rising inflation, labor unions called thousands
of strikes, leading in 1948 to passage of the Taft-Hartley Act (see LABOR-
MANAGEMENT RELATIONS ACT), which limited the powers of unions, declared
certain of their tactics "unfair labor practices," and gave the president
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